Understanding the Terms: Political Science, Political Philosophy, and Political Theory

What is political theory?

• Political theory is a subfield of political science that encompasses (or surrounds) political philosophy, scientific criteria, linguistic analysis of political ideas, and the discovery and systematic development of generalisations about political behaviour.

• Political theory is concerned with studying the phenomenon of the state in both philosophical and empirical terms and attempts to provide explanations, descriptions, and prescriptions regarding the state and political institutions.

• Political theory also studies the moral and philosophical purpose underlying these institutions.

• According to Weinstein, political theory is an activity that involves posing questions, developing responses to those questions, and creating imaginative perspectives on the public life of human beings.

• Some of the questions that political theory asks include: What is the nature and purpose of the state? Why should we prefer one form of state over another? How do we judge the ends, aims, and methods of political organisation? What is and should be the relationship between the state and the individual?

• Throughout history, political theory has been answering these questions. It has been regarded as important because the fate of man is dependent on the kind of system of rulers and the ruled that is achieved and whether it leads to united action for the common good.

Some basic characteristics of Political Theory

1. Assumption of an individual: Political theory is the creation of an individual thinker based on his/her moral and intellectual beliefs. It is an assumption of an individual who is looking to explain mankind’s political reality. Every theory is an explanation that may or may not be accepted but is always open to criticism and is regarded as one more theory. It is an attempt made by a thinker like Plato to seek the truth and is expressed in the works of such thinkers as Plato’s Republic, Aristotle’s Politics, Rawls’ A Theory of Justice, or Hobbes’ Leviathan.

2. An attempt to explain man, history and society: Political theory is an attempt to explain man, history and society. It explores the nature of man and society, how a society is formed, how it works, what the sources of conflict are in the society and how they can be resolved. There are also predictions made about the future.

3. Influence over history: Political theory does not always explain the political or social reality but sometimes actively engages and influences the historical event, particularly when it proposes political action to change society. As the positive liberal thinker Harold Laski put it forward the task is not merely of description but also of prescription on what ought to be.

4. Political Theory is discipline-based: Political theory is disciplined based, which means the subject of study that the theorist seeks to explain remains the same i.e. the state, the writer might be a philosopher, historian, economist, theologian or sociologist.

5. Basis for Political Ideology: Political theory often becomes the basis for political ideology. An ideology is a “set of beliefs, values and ideals by which people allow themselves to be governed.” Theories like the liberal theory became the basis for liberalism, and Marx’s theory became the basis for Marxism. All political theories reflect the distinct ideology of the writer. Political theory reflecting the ideology is the system of beliefs, values and ideals that people accept as their ideals. For example, Western Europe and America adopted an ideology of liberalism and China and the USSR adopted the branch of Marxism. That is also the reason when there are conflicts between the ideologies it leads to debates about the theories underlying those ideologies.

Political Theory and Political Philosophy

• Philosophy is the search for truth and wisdom on any topic, including political topics.

• Political philosophy is a subset of philosophy that studies fundamental questions about the state, government, politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority.

• Political philosophy is not necessarily comprised of any theories and is much wider than political theory.

• Political philosophy is often not concerned with contemporary issues but with more universal issues in the political life of man.

• Political theory is a part of political philosophy that is mostly concerned with contemporary political life.

• Political theorists are interested in explaining the nature and purpose of the state and general questions like that, as well as describing and understanding the realities of political behaviour, the actual relations between state and citizens, and the role of power in society.

• Political theory deals with political phenomena, processes, institutions and tangible political behaviour by subjecting them to a philosophical or ethical example.

• Political philosophy can be understood as a philosophical reflection on means and ways we can arrange our political institutions and social practices. It is the concept proposed by philosophers around which individuals frame the basic principles of their lives.

• Plato is the father of political philosophy.

• Political philosophy deals with ‘what it should be’, i.e., it seeks to achieve the ideal. Political philosophy asks, “What is the best state?”. On the other hand, political theory tries to answer the question “What is the state?”.

Differences between Political Theory and Political Philosophy

According to political scientists guided by empiricism, the differences between political philosophy and political theory are:

• Political theory is a determinant of self-contained power. On the other hand, in state philosophy, the theory has no independent existence.

• Though theories originate in political philosophy, they are not informed by data or science. The political theory relies entirely on information, which is proven through experimentation.

• Political philosophy relies on customs, traditions, and values. On the other hand, political theory is value-neutral, rational and objective in nature.

• While political theory as embedded in philosophy is useful, it is limited to the established beliefs in political philosophy. Mystery and delusion have no place in political theory.

• Philosophy is the fundamental focus of political philosophy, while on the other hand, politics is granted a unique position in political theory.

Political Theory and Political Science

• Political science is a broad subject that covers many aspects of politics and government.

• Political theory is a sub-field of political science that deals with the concepts and principles of political thought and philosophy.

• Some thinkers argue that political theory is not part of political science because it does not use scientific methods and relies on abstract reasoning.

• Political theory is a hybrid discipline that combines elements of thought, philosophy, and science.

• Political science describes, analyses, and explains political establishments, institutions, and the government in an impartial, value-free manner.

TABLE 1: POLITICAL THEORY vs POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY vs POLITICAL SCIENCE

Approaches in Political Theory

Differences between Methods and Approaches

TABLE 2: METHOD vs APPROACH (VAN DYKE, 1960)

• The term “method” refers to a specific or unique way of completing a task. In technical terms, a method is a plan of examination to achieve reliable knowledge or reliable conclusions. A few widely used methods are the scientific method, inductive method, deductive method, comparative method, etc.

• Approach is a much wider term, which indicates both ‘method’ as well as our domain of study for building an understanding of a phenomenon. 

• Vernon Van Dyke, in his 1960 book “Political Science: A Philosophical Analysis," stated: “An approach consists of criteria of selection—criteria employed in selecting the problems or questions to consider and in selecting the data to bring to bear; it consists of 14 standards governing the inclusion and exclusion of questions and data.” Distinguishing between the two terms, Dyke has additionally sighted: “In brief, approaches consist of criteria for selecting problems and relevant data, whereas methods are procedures for getting and utilizing data.” In a nutshell, all approaches are wedded to some method, while all methods may or may not be wedded to an approach.”

• There are two kinds of approaches: traditional approaches, those that remained relevant till World War II, and contemporary approaches, those that developed after World War II.

Fig. 1: Classification of Approaches in Political Theory

Normative Approach

Fig. 2: Normative Approach

The normative political approach is a method in political theory that focuses on evaluating the values and ideals that should guide political action and decision-making. It deals with questions of justice, liberty, and equality and seeks to develop principles that define what is just, fair, and good. Normative theorists aim to establish norms or standards for political processes and institutions, often drawing on philosophical concepts and ethical reasoning.

The normative political approach looks at political science through a moral philosophical lens. It comes from the idea that political life must be guided by the principle of “what ought to be” and not “what is.”

Theory-making in the normative approach is thus guided by principles based on abstract moral reasoning and how they impact policies and institutions.

Some of the key concepts in normative political theory include justice, liberty, and equality.

Normative political science tries to understand the meaning, purposes, and goals of politics. It seeks to define how individuals should behave or how institutions should be constituted. Normative political theorists are concerned with questions like what is just, what is fair, what is good, and what makes a good citizen; do human rights exist and if so, what are they? What purpose does the government serve?

Theorists have tried to answer these questions in three main ways: by focusing on the consequences of behaviour, moral values, or virtue.

One definition of a good citizen can be someone who acts in ways that benefit society; it can be someone who pays taxes and votes because these actions help to create stable and prosperous societies. On the other hand, a bad citizen can be someone who breaks the law to the extent that it harms other citizens.

According to normative political science, a person should behave in ways that benefit society and do not harm it, and individuals should try to be good citizens.

Criticism

Normative political theory is an approach that seeks to identify and evaluate the values and ideals that should guide political action and decision-making. However, it faces several criticisms and limitations, such as:

• The problem of subjectivity: Different individuals or groups may have different values and priorities, which can make it difficult to achieve consensus or resolve conflicts. For example, some people may value liberty more than equality, or vice versa.

• The risk of presentism: Normative political theory may be influenced by the historical and cultural context of the theorist and may not be able to account for the diversity and complexity of political realities across time and space. For example, some concepts or principles that are considered universal or timeless may be contingent or historically specific.

• The difficulty of determining causality and the potential for bias: Normative political theory may rely on empirical assumptions or evidence that is not sufficiently justified or verified and may be affected by the personal or ideological preferences of the theorist. For example, some theories may ignore or downplay the role of power, interests, or institutions in shaping political outcomes.

Historical Approach

Fig. 3: Historical Approach

The historical political approach is a method in political theory that focuses on historical context to understand the political phenomena (events) of the present. The historical political approach can have two engagements: the present laws come from an analysis of historical events, for example, the historical materialism process theorized by Marx and Hegel. The second is an attempt to understand political thought through history; an example of this would be George Sabine’s “A History of Political Thought.”

Historical political theorists are concerned with questions such as how political systems and institutions have evolved and how the ideas and actions of key figures and movements have shaped political thought and practice. Historical political theory stands for taking historical events into account. The historical approach helps in setting political events chronologically. These past events must be relevant to politics and have implications for the present. An example is the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648.

The best demonstration of the historical approach can be found in the work of George H. Sabine, who gave a practical definition of political science. He proposed that political science needs to be included in every subject discussed by key figures and prominent political philosophers such as Aristotle, Rousseau, or Plato. Throughout history, political philosophers have thought about the meaning of justice, why men should obey the government, the extent of government activities, and the meaning of equality.

Plato, a Greek philosopher known for his theory of the state and the philosopher-king, argued that the ideal state would be ruled by a philosopher-king or individual who was just and wise.

Aristotle, another Greek philosopher known for his theory of the state and the good life, argued that the purpose of the state is to help individuals live a happy life and reach their full potential.

The Enlightenment, a movement that emerged in Europe in the 18th century, is best known for its emphasis on reason, science and individual rights and its influence on the development of modern political and social thought.

For Sabine, political theory advances with a reference to a pretty specific situation and therefore reconstruction of the time, place and circumstances in which it was produced becomes important. A political theory always exists in context, but that does not mean it becomes irrelevant in different time frames or contexts. A strong political theory has everlasting significance because political philosophy is universal.

A typical political theory combines “factual declarations regarding the condition of events that gave birth to it,” “statements of what may be roughly dubbed a causal kind,” and “statements that something ought to happen or is the right and desirable thing to have happened.”

Political theories are made up of three elements: factual, casual and valuation. Political views that sway have usually emerged during times of hardship and pressure.

For example, Athens during the second and third quarters of the fourth century B.C., when Plato and Aristotle wrote their great works, or England between 1640 and 1690, when Hobbes, Locke and others developed their political theories.

Significant changes occurred throughout each of these periods in Europe’s social and intellectual history. They are not generated by or in crises, but by the reaction intellectuals have to them. To fully appreciate political theory, we must have a thorough understanding of the period, region and circumstances in which it was written. We should make every effort to include factual, causal, and valuational elements in our understanding of political theory.

Criticism

The historical political approach is an approach that seeks to understand and analyze the nature and evolution of political systems and institutions within their historical context. It examines how past events have shaped and influenced the present and future of politics. Some of the criticisms of the historical political approach are:

• It may suffer from presentism, or the tendency to view the past through the lens of the present. This can lead to an oversimplification or distortion of the past and a lack of appreciation for the complexity and contingency of historical events.

• It may be biased by the selection and interpretation of historical sources and evidence. Different historians may have different perspectives and agendas and may emphasize or ignore certain aspects of the past.

• It may be limited by the availability and reliability of historical data and information. Some historical periods or regions may have more or less documentation and records, and some of these may be incomplete, inaccurate, or contradictory.

• It may be challenged by the emergence of new political phenomena and realities that are not adequately explained by historical precedents or patterns. The historical approach may not be able to account for the novelty and diversity of contemporary politics.

Empirical Approach or Empiricism

Fig. 4: Empirical Approach

• The empirical approach is the doctrine that believes that all hypotheses and theories should be tested by a practical process of observation and experiment. This theory rejects theories that are based on value judgments. John Locke believes that all human beings are tabula rasa (blank tablets), and all the information is imprinted on them in the form of sense data through our senses.

• All forms of empirical approach draw a clear line between facts, arguments that are made through observation, experience and experimentation, which can be trusted, and values, which are mere beliefs and opinions that cannot be trusted.

• Unlike the normative approach, which is “prescriptive” in nature and attempts to make only judgements and recommendations, the empirical approach, on the other hand, is “descriptive” in nature as it seeks to analyze and explain phenomena.

• Some of the key concepts and methods in empirical theory include game theory, which is used to analyze strategic interactions between individuals or groups, and statistical analysis, which is used to examine the relationships between variables and test hypotheses.

• The empirical approach formed the basis for later pragmatic approaches like positivism and behaviourism.

• Under the influence of positivism, political theorists gained a scientific understanding of political processes based on principles that could be objectively confirmed and proven. As a result, they were able to form a society based on natural science, and philosophy was reduced to a simple branch of science in the process.

Criticism

The empirical approach is an approach that seeks to test and evaluate theories and hypotheses about politics by collecting and analyzing data but it is not without its criticisms.

• One of the main criticisms is the challenge of determining causality, meaning it can be difficult to establish a clear and direct link between cause and effect. Critics argue that empirical research often relies on normative assumptions and may interpret data naively without the necessary critical knowledge.

• Another criticism of empirical political theory is the potential for bias in the data collection and analysis. This can occur when the data collected does not represent the population that is being studied or the analysis is influenced by the preconceptions or biases of the researcher.

• Additionally, some scholars criticize empirical political theory for adopting natural science models and depending too heavily on data to prove relationships between variables, which may not accurately reflect causal inference.

• These criticisms highlight the limitations of empirical approaches in fully capturing the complexities of political phenomena. The debate continues as scholars seek to balance empirical evidence with theoretical frameworks to better understand political systems and behaviour.

TABLE 3: NORMATIVE vs HISTORICAL vs EMPIRICAL APPROACH

Exercise Question